Abstract

Despite the high rates of academic achievement among women in Palestine, labor force participation and the high unemployment rate still constitute an obstacle to women's empowerment. In this context, there is an increasing focus on education and technical and vocational training (TVET), as a means of enhancing women's employment opportunities, of raising income and of improving their capabilities and effectiveness. This research aims to study the contribution of education programs at the Smart College for Modern Education in Hebron to enhancing economic and social empowerment of female students and graduates. Methodology: A cross-sectional quantitative design using an electronic questionnaire through Google Forms was used. This questionnaire was distributed among all qualified, graduate and registered female students in TVET programs for both bachelor and diploma female students of the years 2024-2025. The final sample size was 324 participants and SPSS and AMOS were used to analyze date. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis supported a five-factor model comprising the quality of TVET, social and psychological empowerment, attitudes toward TVET, institutional and government support, and economic empowerment. Measurement invariance was also tested across three age groups, followed by structural equation modeling and multi-group analysis. Results: The results of the measurement model showed a good fit and strong evidence of reliability. All variables related to TVET had statistically significant effects on economic empowerment, jointly explaining 62% of the variance. Moreover, the results of the multi-group structural equation modeling confirmed the invariance of the model structure across age groups. However, the results showed an age-related gradient, with path coefficients and R² values increasing from the youngest age group (under 20 years) to women over the age of 25, suggesting that the effect of TVET on empowerment increases with age. Conclusion: Technical and vocational training is found to be one of the fundamental tools that support the capabilities that empower Palestinian women to participate in the economic sector. High-quality vocational training, social and psychological empowerment, positive attitudes towards TVET and institutional and government support all contributed to strengthening women's economic agency. Accordingly, policies should focus on high-quality programs, supportive and integrated systems, as well as initiatives specifically targeting younger women, whose economic pathways are still in their early stages.

Keywords

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET); Women’s Economic Empowerment; Palestine; Structural Equation Modeling; Measurement Invariance; Age Differences.